What does life mean for modern people. Problems of human existence
1. The concept of "ontology". Problems of being.
2. Philosophical concept of matter.
3. Attributes of matter - movement, space, time.
4. The contribution of philosophy to the development of ideas about movement, space, time.
Being - one of the most important categories of philosophy. The word "being" comes from the verb "to be". But if being is understood only in this narrow sense of the word, then it is impossible to answer the questions: what does it mean to be? what guarantees existence? In modern philosophical literature, two meanings of the word "being" are indicated.
1. This is an objective world that exists independently of consciousness.
2. This is everything that exists independently of consciousness, not only matter, but also consciousness, ideas, feelings and fantasies of people.
So, if being is everything that exists, i.e. the opposite concept is non-existence, all that is not. How being and non-being relate to each other is a philosophical question. He then disappears from the field of view of philosophers, then reappears. The science of being is called ontology. Here are the main milestones in the study of the problem of being.
The term "being" was first introduced into philosophy by the ancient Greek philosopher Parmenides (V - IV centuries BC). The main thesis of Parmenides “There is being, but there is no non-being at all; here is the path of certainty, and it brings it closer to the truth.
During the time of Parmenides, people began to lose faith in traditional gods, mythology began to be regarded as fiction. The world no longer seemed so strong and reliable. People needed faith in a new force. Parmenides introduces the concept of being as a force that will protect the world from destruction and chaos. Being - this is what is beyond the world of sensible things, and this is a thought, but not an ordinary thought, but Absolute Thought, Logos- cosmic mind, through which the content of the world is revealed for a person directly. Not a man reveals the truth, but the truth is revealed to a man. Human understanding cannot assess the truth of knowledge.
One of the critics of Parmenides was Socrates. He believed that Parmenides was too mindful of the subjective mind, thought, and exalted the claim of philosophers to the status of representatives of the Divine Being. Socrates declared the highest reality not being, but individual, but universally valid consciousness.
Materialists - Democritus, Devkisht believed that the world is atoms (being) and emptiness (non-being).
Solving the problem of being Parmenides opened the way for development metaphysics- the doctrine of non-material being, independent of either man or mankind. The doctrine of the absolute spirit, spiritual entities, God in philosophy is classified as metaphysical.
Aristotle built a model (followed by Thomas Aquinas) of the hierarchical ordering of the world. Dead matter at the very bottom, then plants, animals, man, and at the top God, absolutely free from matter, therefore the most perfect. In F. Aquinas, all levels of the hierarchy are independent, all of them are involved in only one God.
The philosophy of modern times has lost! the former understanding of being as absolute and authentic, the perfect guarantor of everything that happens in the world.
· I. Kant asserts that being is independent of cognition.
· The philosophy of values declares values to be the ultimate foundation of human existence.
· Philosophical anthropology considers being as the ability of a person to go beyond his own limits and thereby substantiate everything that exists.
· Existentialism states that man - he alone is the ultimate being.
· Marxism (F. Engels) claims that being "is generally an open question, starting from the border where our field of vision ends."
The worldview of the New Age was built on the confidence of a person in his autonomy, on the conviction that he himself, independently forms his spirituality and its highest form - consciousness.
Russian religious philosophers associated this or that solution to the problem of being with the specifics of the worldview, the attitude of the people, people of a certain culture. They argued that the specificity of the Russian worldview is based on a different, in comparison with the Western, worldview. Religious philosophers condemned the break with the Absolute, criticized the new European man, who became proud of his autonomy and desired to be a god on earth. Man is rooted in being, which makes his consciousness possible. Knowledge is the self-disclosure of being.
In the XX century. turns to affirmation ontology as a central part of philosophy. Philosophers conditionally distinguish 4 levels of being:
1. being of bodies, things, processes; (the existence of natural phenomena).
2. human being; (the existence of a biological, social and psychological principle in a person).
3. being ideal and spiritual; (existence of consciousness and its products).
4. Being social (society has a real process of people's life).
The category of being is closely related to the category matter. The existence of matter is recognized by both materialists and idealists. Idealists recognize the existence of matter, but consider it as a low kind of being, secondary to the creative principle - consciousness. For materialists, matter is the basis of everything that exists.
The most complete doctrine of matter is given within the framework of the dialectical-materialistic doctrine.
The most generally recognized in philosophical materialism is the definition given by V.I. Lenin in his work "Materialism and Empiriocriticism": "Matter is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them."
From this definition, 3 conclusions follow:
1. The main property of matter is to be an objective reality, i.e. exist outside of our consciousness.
2. Matter is inexhaustible, it exists in variety specific objects. No particular object has the right to claim its exclusive right to be matter.
3. The world is knowable. Thinking is a product of the human brain, i.e. matter. Because man is a product of nature.
The concept of "matter" is the guarantor of the existence of the world. Matter is attributed the same characteristics as God: eternity, indestructibility, uncreation.
Science and philosophical materialism are similar in their understanding of being: it is identified with the existence of sensible things that a person reproduces.
But philosophy tries to present a general picture of the world, while science studies specific forms and levels of matter. Modern science in the end of the XX century. gave the following picture of the world:
Level I - inanimate nature:
elementary particles, vacuum;
atoms, stars, molecules, planets, planetary systems, galaxies;
systems of galaxies, metagalaxies.
II ur. - Live nature:
biological life:
· DNA, RNA;
Cells and unicellular organisms
plants and animals;
Populations (packs of wolves, fish - reproducing themselves in offspring);
biocenoses (a set of populations);
biosphere (global system of life, formed as a result of the interaction of biocenoses).
Level III - social level of matter:
· classes;
nations, etc.
The material world (according to materialists) is united in its diversity. The basis of the world is matter, and its levels and forms are diverse.
Matter has numerous properties: indestructibility, inexhaustibility, knowability, eternity. There are properties that are called attributes of matter: these are movement, space, time .
The philosophical concept of motion denotes any interactions, as well as changes in the states of objects that occur in the process of these interactions. Therefore, motion is a change in general.
All things in the world around us are in constant motion and change. If a thing does not change its “appearance”, its location, then inside it there is a movement of elementary particles. And outwardly the thing remains at rest. peace - this is a state of movement that does not violate the qualitative specifics of the object. If the qualitative state of objects changes, then 2 results are possible here: the disintegration of the object and the formation of a more complex object.
Development – a change accompanied by the emergence of new qualitative states, which are opportunities hidden in previous states (egg - chicken).
F. Engels in his work "Dialectics of Nature" characterized the forms of motion of matter.
1. Mechanical - the movement of bodies relative to each other (movement).
2. Physical - thermal, electrical, magnetic processes in solid, liquid, gaseous bodies.
3. Chemical - connection and disintegration of molecules.
4. Biological - the vital activity of living organisms.
5. Public or social - the formation and development of human society.
All forms of motion of matter are interconnected. The interaction of the forms of motion of matter underlies the development of the Universe.
Two other attributes of matter - space and time.
P space - a form of existence of matter, expressing the extent of bodies and objects, their size and location among other objects of the world.
Time - forms of existence of matter, expressing the duration of ongoing processes, their pace, mode, sequence.
Idealists consider space and time to be the creation of consciousness, the absolute idea.
Space and time, according to materialists, are eternal, uncreated, infinite and limitless, because they are attributes of matter.
Philosophical theories of space and time can be divided into substantive and relational.
Substantial theories consider space and time as special entities that exist on their own, independent of material objects. They represent the arena in which material processes unfold and material objects exist.
relational the concept of space and time lies in the fact that they are presented as special relationships between objects and processes and do not exist outside of them. This theory asserts the connection of space and time with each other and with moving matter.
At the beginning of the 20th century, physics revealed a deep connection between space and time. There was even a new term space-time. They suggest that our world is measured by the 3+1 formula (three spatial dimensions and one time dimension).
Modern science believes that there may be worlds with other space-time characteristics. Scientists suggest that at the birth of our metagalaxy there was a ten-dimensional space-time. Four dimensions (3+1) became forms of being at the macroscopic level, and six determined the structure of the microworld.
Each structural level of matter corresponds to a specific form of space and time. Peculiarities biological space-time are manifested at the level of protein molecules in the form of asymmetry of "left" and "right" in the groupings of atoms. In inanimate nature there is no difference between "left" and "right". Living centers are formed only from those molecules in which there is a "left-handed grouping". They have their own specifics and temporal organization of the living. Plants, animals, people have their own biological clock - the duration of biological and chemical processes in them, depending on the time of day, weather, etc.
The space and time of the life of society has specificity. Mankind has its own habitat - the space where a person lives, builds a dwelling, cultivates the land. Next to undeveloped nature, "humanized" nature appeared. This production is characterized not only by the connection of objects and objects, but also by the attitude of a person to objects and their habitat. Nostalgia - a person's longing for the Motherland, if he is forced to live in any other place.
social time - a form of society's being, expressing the duration of historical processes, their changes that arise in the course of people's activities. Social processes have different duration. The closer to today, the more they accelerate. The tribal society lasted several tens of thousands of years, the medieval society - about 1400 years, the capitalist - about 300 years. It was under capitalism that “social acceleration” took place - the pursuit of profit. There was an intensification of labor, a consolidation of events. No wonder it was then that the second hand was invented. Social time is multi-level - a change in the age of a person, a change in historical eras, each has its own rhythm and values.
This is a materialist doctrine based on Lenin's definition. Recently, some philosophers have argued that it contains 2 mutually exclusive propositions:
1. Matter is independent of our consciousness.
2. Matter is an objective reality.
One refutes the other. The first proposition can neither be proved nor disproved.
Problems of human existence
06.05.2015Snezhana Ivanova
Being is the perception of one's own life from one position or another: a useful or useless existence.
Human being is very much connected with the meaning of life. The search for a destiny, the desire to capture one's deeds in eternity makes a person sometimes think about eternal questions. Every thinking person sooner or later comes to the realization that his individual life is worth something. Not everyone, however, manages to discover its true value; many, in the search for truth, do not notice their own uniqueness.
Being is the perception of one's own life from one position or another: a useful or useless existence. The concept of being is often associated with a mystical search. Scientists have been thinking about the meaning of human life since ancient times: Aristotle, Scheler, Gehlen. The problem of human existence has worried many thinkers at all times. They left their thoughts on paper in order to preserve them for future generations. To date, there are various philosophical approaches that allow the most complete approach to the question of the meaning of life.
The meaning of being
social service
People of this orientation experience great pleasure when they are given the opportunity to help others. They see the meaning and purpose of their life in being as useful as possible to their loved ones, friends, and colleagues. They may never think about the fact that in many ways they sacrifice themselves just to make others feel better. Most often they act unconsciously, obeying the inner voice emanating from the heart. Such mothers give a lot of strength and energy to their children, often not realizing that they limit their own interests for the sake of the well-being of their child.
Social service can be expressed in the desire to devote oneself to work, to some social cause. It often happens that women, having realized themselves in some area, never get married, do not create their own families. The thing is that they have already internally reached the center of their lives and do not want to change anything. The main feature of people of this type is that they constantly want to help others, to participate in the fate of those who need it.
cultivating the spirit
People in this category are not often found. They see the main meaning of their lives in working on their character, engaging in self-education and actively learning the truth. Some of the restless thinkers associate this goal with religious beliefs. But sometimes the desire to improve one's soul is not directly related to the church. A person can learn the highest truth in wanderings or through the study of spiritual books, meditation. However, these manifestations testify to a subconscious (not always conscious) desire to find God.
Fasting and prayer are indispensable conditions for the development of spirituality in a person. Appeal to the improvement of the spirit cannot occur without austerities, that is, conscious restrictions on oneself in pleasures. Through volitional efforts, a person learns to control his own desires, keep them in check, separate true goals from whims, does not allow himself to become the center of earthly pleasures, strengthens faith in the divine principle. Such a person, most often, is characterized by the seriousness of intentions, the desire for solitude, kindness, the need to comprehend the truth.
Self-realization
This approach reflects the idea that the value of an individual human life lies in the fulfillment of its destiny. This concept is very deep in its essence, it touches upon the topic of personal development and self-improvement, in which the choice of the individual himself is decisive. If a person chooses self-realization as a priority, he often neglects other areas. Relations with family, communication with friends can go into the background. A personality focused on self-realization is distinguished by such character traits as purposefulness, responsibility, desire to achieve great results, and the ability to overcome difficulties.
This approach to life demonstrates the enormous inner potential that lies in the individual. Such a person will act under any circumstances, he will not miss a profitable opportunity, he will always strive to be on top, he will calculate all the steps to victory and achieve what he wants.
Self-realization as the meaning of life reflects modern views on understanding the essence of human existence. Natalya Grace notes in her books that the greatest tragedy in the world is the tragedy of unfulfillment, and at trainings she talks in colors about why it is so important to use one's energy correctly. It is amazing what great success people could achieve if they used their own capabilities to the maximum, did not miss a happy opportunity. Modern scientists have discovered the concept of the materiality of thought. Today, more and more often there is a large number of successful people for whom purpose is the main value. This does not mean at all that these individuals are not capable of thinking about anyone but themselves. It is they who realize more than others what a colossal work it takes to move towards true success and the disclosure of their abilities.
The meaning of life does not exist
People in this category do not occupy the areas listed above. They try to live in such a way that they feel comfortable and easy, without problems and unnecessary grief. They are often referred to as ordinary people. Of course, no impulses of altruism are alien to them either. They can even be successful diplomats or scientists, but stick to this position. They do not have a main goal in life, and this, perhaps, is sad. They simply try to live for today and do not think about the search for higher truth.
All of these areas have the right to exist. In fact, they are simply different paths leading to self-knowledge. Each person determines the meaning of life for himself purely individually.
Problems of human existence
The never ending search
A spiritually developed personality is characterized by the desire for self-knowledge. This is an inner need that a person seeks to satisfy with all the forces of the soul. What is this search? First of all, in relentless thoughts and everyday impressions. Notice that a person constantly conducts internal dialogues with himself, analyzes what he managed to do during the day, and where he failed. The person thus accumulates the necessary experience in order to be able to live on and not repeat the mistakes of the past.
The habit of mentally examining one's own actions for errors and miscalculations is inherent not only to sages and thinkers. Even the average person who spends most of the day in the workplace tends to think through the steps taken. The analysis of feelings and moods is most accessible to spiritually developed people, in whom the voice of conscience sounds stronger and more distinct. The eternal spiritual search helps to make the process of personal development.
Problem of choice
In life, a person makes choices much more often than it might seem at first glance. Any action actually occurs from the conscious desire of the individual and her own permission for this or that event. Personality changes very slowly, but it cannot help changing. As a result of interaction with other people, she learns, makes amazing discoveries. The emotional side of life deserves a separate discussion. When it comes to choice, all the senses are involved. If the choice is not easy, then the person worries, suffers, doubts, and is in thought for a long time.
The peculiarity of the problem of choice is such that the further life of the subject directly depends on the decision made. Even if it does not change radically, it still undergoes some changes. The very existence of the individual is dictated by a number of points where he needs to decide on the choice of direction.
Sense of responsibility
Any business that a person is engaged in requires a disciplined approach. A developed personality always feels a certain degree of responsibility for everything he does. By making this or that choice, a person hopes to get the expected result. In case of failure, not just a load of negative emotions falls on the person, but a feeling of guilt for having taken the wrong steps, for not being able to foresee erroneous actions.
The sense of responsibility in a person is of two types: to other people and to oneself. In the case of relatives, friends and acquaintances, we try to act in such a way as possible not to infringe on their interests, but to be able to take care of our own. So, a parent for many years takes responsibility for the fate of his child from the moment of birth until his full maturity. He is ready not only to take care of the little man, but he realizes that it is under his protection that there is another life. That is why a mother's love for her child is so deep and selfless.
The responsibility of the individual to himself is a special moment in interaction with the world. We must not forget that each of us has a specific mission that must be fulfilled, realized. A person always intuitively knows what his destiny is and subconsciously strives for this. A sense of responsibility can be expressed in concern for one's fate and health, as well as for loved ones, for being able to achieve a high level of skill in a particular occupation.
Freedom Theme
Freedom as a category of the sublime occupies the minds of thinkers and philosophers. Freedom is valued above all else, people are ready to fight for it, to endure significant inconvenience. Every person needs the freedom to move forward progressively. If a person is limited by a narrow framework, he will not be able to fully develop, have his own individual view of the world. Being is closely connected with freedom, because only in favorable conditions can one act productively.
Any creative undertaking comes into contact with the concept of freedom. The artist creates in a free atmosphere. If he is placed in unfavorable conditions, the images will not be able to be born and line up in his head so vividly.
Theme of Creativity
Man is so arranged that he always needs to create something new. In fact, each of us is a unique creator of our own reality, because everyone sees the world differently. So, the same event can cause completely opposite reactions in different people. We are constantly creating for ourselves new pictures of the vision of the situation, looking for the meanings and meanings of the phenomena that are taking place. Creativity is in the nature of man. It is not only the one who has the gift of an artist who creates, but each of us is an artist and the creator of his own mood, atmosphere in the house, workplace, etc.
Thus, the concept of being is very multifaceted and complex. In everyday life, a person does not often turn to questions about the meaning of life and purpose. But left alone with himself, subconsciously or consciously begins to feel disturbing questions that need to be resolved. The problems of life often force a person to look for alternative ways to find happiness and fullness of life. Fortunately, many people, having passed the path of difficult searches, gradually come to the realization that being is valuable in itself.
Being is the existence of material and spiritual objects. To be means to exist. Consequently, the category "being" reflects only one sign of the world - the fact of its existence. The opposite (antithesis) of the category "being" is the category "non-existence".
Forms of being- these are varieties of phenomena belonging to being, differing in the way of their existence. On this basis, the following forms of being are distinguished: - the being of objective reality, which in turn includes the being of nature, the being of a "second nature", that is, the world of things done by man, and in objective idealistic teachings - the being of the world spirit;
The existence of subjective reality (the spiritual world of man), containing the existence of individual consciousness and the existence of social consciousness; - the existence of the processes and results of the interaction of objective and subjective reality, that is, the existence of a person and his culture.
Concepts of being. The philosophical content of the problem of being constitutes one way or another of understanding ontological contradictions:- between eternity, infinity, the enduring nature of the world and non-eternity, finitude, the transient nature of its concrete manifestations; - between the unity of the world and its diversity in this unity; - between the independence of the existence of the world from man and the inclusion of man in the world, his existence as a manifestation of the world.
Of particular importance is the contradiction between the spiritual and the material, subjective and objective, consciousness and matter. In solving this problem, three concepts.
1.Monism(Greek mono - one) is a philosophical doctrine that takes any one principle as the basis of all that exists - matter or consciousness.
2. Dualism(lat. dualis - dual) Proponents of this direction consider the material and spiritual substance equal in rights, and the primacy of any of them is unprovable (Aristotle, Descartes, Kant).
3. Pluralism(lat. Plereles - plural) is a philosophical position that recognizes many independent equivalent substances: the foundations of being in ontology, the foundations and forms of knowledge in epistemology (Leibniz, Popper).
The main dividing line was between two trends of monists: materialists and idealists.
materialism - this is a trend in philosophy, which recognizes the material substance, nature, physical principle as primary, and ideal, spiritual, subjective factors as secondary. Materialists believe that the nature surrounding man, the cosmos, were not created by anyone. As a result of the eternal self-development of being, they existed, exist and will exist independently of man or the divine idea.
Materialism is:
By fundamentality of knowledge on naive and evidence-based;
By way of thinking into dialectical and metaphysical;
By attitude towards socio-historical practice into effective and contemplative;
With the point of view of using the achievements of natural science on the scientific and vulgar (thought is a product of the activity of the brain);
Famous materialists include Democritus, Epicurus, F. Bacon, D. Locke, J. La Mettrie, D. Diderot, P. Holbach, K. Helvetius, L. Feuerbach, N. Chernyshensky, K. Marx, F. Engels, G. Plekhanov , V. Lenin and many others.
Idealism is a trend in philosophy that consciousness considers primary, that is, a subjective or objective ideal principle. It has two forms: objective idealism and subjective idealism. According to objective idealism, the basis of the universe is a spiritual substance that exists outside and independently of individual consciousness in the form of ideas, spirit, world mind (Plato, F. Scheling, G. Hegel). Subjective idealism believes that the material world exists only in the human mind. Objective reality is derived from subjective reality (Berkeley, Hume, empiricism, sensationalism, solipsism, phenomenalism). The question of ratio F. Engels called matter and consciousness, thinking and being, spirit and nature the main question of philosophy.
Matter and forms of its existence.
The definition of matter given by V. I. Lenin is considered classical: matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them. Firstly, matter is considered as a mental reduction by which we embrace the world of things and phenomena in their unity, in accordance with their common property of being an objective reality, i.e. to exist outside and independently of the consciousness of an individual and of all mankind. Such unity is called material. Matter is opposed to consciousness, and in order to distinguish the objectivity of matter from the objectivity of God, the Absolute, Being, etc., materialism denies the latter the right to be a reality. Secondly, if the only property of matter that matters for philosophical materialism is the property "to be an objective reality", then no natural bodies, substances, elements can be considered as first principles. In this sense, everything, from the gene and the atom to the Galaxy, is equivalent. Matter exists only in the variety of concrete objects. Matter as such does not exist, matter as such is not something perceptible to the senses. Thirdly, matter is "copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations." This recognizes the fundamental cognizability of the material world, which means agreement, coincidence of the content of the laws of the objective world and the laws of thinking. This coordination is explained as follows: thinking is a product of the human brain; man and his brain are a product of nature, therefore, in the final analysis, thinking is a product of nature, and therefore its laws coincide with the laws of the objective world. The concept of "matter" performs the same function as the Parmenidean concept of "being", the theological Absolute, the god of the pantheists, etc. It acts as a guarantor of the existence of the world in its unity, although we are talking about material unity. You can talk about matter at the level of inanimate and living nature.
Basic types of motion of matter. Changes are hidden and obvious. The former are not fixed by simple observation, since they do not change the external qualitative characteristics of objects, things and phenomena. Thus, science has proved that all bodies consist of atoms, within which there are endless processes of interaction of elementary particles: electrons, positrons, etc. These are internal processes. The second type of movement is accompanied by qualitative changes in objects, fixed at the level of observations. This includes the phenomena of death - the death of objects of inanimate and living nature, the transition of objects from one state to another (for example, water turns into ice when it freezes, and metal becomes liquid when heated), the emergence of new objects (for example, scientists record the emergence of new stars; from materials of nature, people have learned to produce objects that exist in nature). In addition to the types of motion of matter, allocate forms of motion of matter. The idea of the forms of motion of matter, their relationship and correspondence to the forms of matter was formulated by F. Engels. He identified five forms of motion of matter: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social. The main qualitative characteristics of inanimate nature are determined by the interaction of the physical and chemical forms of the motion of matter; in living nature, the biological form of movement is predominant, which is in interaction with the chemical form of movement. The social form of movement is inherent in society.
The nature and essence of man
In the philosophical literature, there are two positions on this issue. According to one, human nature is entirely social. According to another, it is not only social, but also biologically loaded. We are talking about whether there are biologically programmed patterns of human behavior. Proponents of both approaches draw their arguments from serious sources. Proponents of the first argue that a person is born with a single ability, "the ability to acquire human abilities." Proponents of the second approach refer to the data of modern sociobiology, according to which most of the stereotypical forms of human behavior are characteristic of mammals, and more specific forms - the behavior of primates. Among these stereotypical forms, E. Wilson identifies mutual altruism, protection of a certain habitat, aggressiveness, adherence to the forms of sexual behavior worked out by evolution, nepotism (nepotism), which, in this case, means commitment not only to related, but also to intrapopulation formations, finally, socialization, etc. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that when it comes to the named forms of human behavior, the corresponding terms are used metaphorically.
26. Philosophical and natural-scientific ideas about the properties and structure of matter .
Space and time are forms of existence of matter. Moving matter includes the coexistence of diverse objects of the world external to each other. But this externality is of a special kind: as really existing, these objects external to each other constitute a unity. If the world did not have a discrete structure, if it did not consist of a heterogeneous variety of objects, which in turn consist of interconnected elements, then the concept of space would not make sense. The form of existence of moving matter, which represents the successive sequence of objects and phenomena in their interaction and change, in their emergence and destruction. This form of existence of moving matter is time. With the help of the concept of "time" the duration of the processes of change, their speed, rhythm and pace are characterized. The concept of time helps to describe, to express the continuity of the interaction of objects, when things not only constantly change, but also arise and perish, are destroyed, giving rise to new objects. The categories of space and time are extremely general abstractions expressing the structural organization of matter and the constant change in the objects of the material world. Space and time, being forms of matter, organize its content: qualitative and quantitative. Matter does not exist outside of space and time. But the opposite is also true: space and time themselves cannot exist as independent substances, in isolation from matter. Based on the philosophy of Hegel, Marx and Engels developed materialist dialectic- the doctrine of the development of natural, social and spiritual phenomena. Science and dialectical materialism have the same understanding of being: it is identified with the existence of sensible things, which themselves are both the guarantor and justification of their own stability and infinite reproducibility.
29. The origin of man and the uniqueness of his being.
I. Kant once came to the conclusion that in philosophy there are only three questions to which it is called upon to answer: what can I know? what can I hope for? what should I do? And all three are covered, as he wrote shortly before his death in his Logic, with one question: what is a person?
In the labor theory of anthroposociogenesis, developed in Marxist literature, the main factor in the formation of human consciousness is purposeful work. The use of tools and their improvement is the main difference between man and animals. The implementation of labor activity became possible due to the transition of certain species of monkeys to upright walking, the forelimbs were freed, and the hand began to develop. At the same time, there are many unclear points - for example, such as anthropic principle. In accordance with the anthropic principle, the Universe contains such an exact set of constants that lead at a certain stage to the appearance of a person. It can be said that it is "programmed" for a person.
In philosophical literature, the word "mystery" is used in several senses. Most often, this word denotes something that is not yet known, but fundamentally completely knowable. Is it possible in this sense to speak of the mystery of man? It is possible, but only in part, because the object itself is very unusual. Man, Teilhard de Chardin pointed out, is the most mysterious and confusing object. Man is also a mystery in the sense that the formulas born in the depths of rationalism cannot be fully applied to him: “to understand an object means to construct it” (Spinoza), “to understand means to express in concepts” (Hegel) and others of the same kind. Statements are more realistic, one of which is the conclusion of M. M. Bakhtin: "A person cannot be a concept." Behind it is the understanding that the logical-conceptual discourse is material in nature, it is able to completely exhaust the thing, the object, but not the subject in knowledge. The main thing in the subject is not what expresses its commonality with other subjects, but what distinguishes it from them. Therefore, according to Bakhtin, this is the realm of discoveries, revelations, recognitions, communications, and mystery is also important here, the categories of material knowledge cannot be transferred to them.
Being- all existing reality. The category "being" is one of the broadest philosophical categories.
opposite existence concept - "non-existence" ("nothing"). Being, as that which can be thought, is opposed to the unthinkable nothing(and not-yet-being possibilities in Aristotelian philosophy). In the 20th century, in existentialism, being is interpreted through the being of a person, since he has the ability to think and question about being. Man, as being, has freedom and will. In classical metaphysics, being is God.
Distinguish being And being . Existence is the totality of surrounding things. But among them one can find something that is common to all of them, a peculiar sign of the whole world (existing in general), which consists in the fact that it - the world - exists in general. This is expressed in the concept of being. Hence, the question is why is there anything at all, and on what does this “is” rest?
For the first time the concept of "being" was introduced by Eleatus Parmenides (504-501 BC). There is a being and there is the existence of this being, which is called being. Non-existence, "nothing" (of what does not exist) No. Thus, the first thesis of Parmenides is: « Being is, non-being is not at all» . It follows from this thesis that being- one, motionless, unchanging, indivisible, perfect, has no parts, one, eternal, good, did not arise, is not subject to death, because otherwise it would be necessary to admit the existence of something other than being, that is, non-being, and this is unacceptable. Parmenides also believes that « think and be are one and the same», « one and the same thought and that on which the thought rushes ". Since there is no non-existence, this means that it is impossible to think of it. Everything that is conceivable is being.
There are a number of concepts "true being" : Logos, World Mind (Heraclitus), number (Pythagoras), primary matter (ancient natural philosophers), atoms (Democritus), ideas (Plato), form of forms, prime mover, God (Aristotle).
3. Main types of life:
1) objective and subjective, 2) potential and actual, 3) material and spiritual, 4) natural and social
1) Objective Being(God, nature, society) - existing independently of man, subjective being (thoughts, feelings) - the inner world of a person, produced by himself, subjective-objective being (objective world, consciously transformed by man and dependent on him, "second nature"; objective-subjective character, for post-non-classical science it also has scientific knowledge).
In the philosophy of objective idealism, under being understand the true and absolute timeless
reality, as opposed to the present world of becoming. This being is Spirit, Mind, God. Subjective idealism identifies the object of knowledge with sensory perception, "muses", ideas (entities) - interpreting being as something ideal, dependent on consciousness, generated by it.
2) Aristotle in Metaphysics divided being into potential (possible) And actual ( valid) . Potential being - undeveloped, unformed, unfolded, but existing in reality ( future in the present- a child, for example). Actual being - fully manifested, formed, revealed (which is achieved at the stage of maturity - for example, a professional, a person). The process of turning possibility into reality is called becoming.
3) Being materialAnd being spiritual. Matter (from lat. material- substance) - a physical substance, opposite to consciousness (spirit). . There are several approaches to the concept "matter":
a) materialistic approach, according to which matter is the fundamental principle of being (substance), and all other existential forms - spirit, man, society - are the product of matter, matter is primary and represents existing being, subdivided into inert, living and social matter .;
b) an objective-idealistic approach - matter exists as a product (emanation, objectification) of the primordial (ideal) Spirit independent of all that exists;
c) subjective-idealistic approach - matter as an independent reality does not exist at all, it is only a product of human consciousness;
d) positivist - the concept of "matter" is false, because it cannot be proved and fully studied by experimental scientific research.
Matter (from the point of view of materialism) has the following properties: increability, indestructibility, inexhaustibility, movement, space and time.
movement any change (both thoughts and matter) is called. Movement is the unity of change and preservation (continuity). It has a universal character (it is one of the few absolute truths known to us).
Movement - way the existence of matter. Allocate five basic forms of motion of matter : mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social (F. Engels "Dialectics of Nature"). A directed change, accompanied by the appearance of new qualitative states, is called development (ascending line –
progress, descending - regression). The development of nature is denoted by the concept " evolution ”, the development of society -“ story ”, the joint development of society and nature -“ coevolution ».
Space and time - forms the existence of matter. Space expresses the extent of phenomena, their structure of elements and parts. Space is three-dimensional (length, height, width) and reversible (you can return to your children's yard). Time expresses the duration, speed of ongoing processes, the sequence of changing their states. Time is one-dimensional (it flows along one line - past, present, future) and irreversible (it is impossible to return to childhood). Einstein proved that space and time are inseparable from each other, forming a single space-time continuum (chronotope).
There are different "rivers" of time: astronomical, geological, physical, biological ("biological clock"), historical, subjective (“I know that time is extensible, it depends on what kind of content you fill it with”, S. Ya. Marshak).
Spiritual life.In the philosophy of objective idealism being is understood as a true and absolute timeless reality, as opposed to the existing world of becoming. Such being is the World Spirit, the World Mind, the Absolute Idea, God. The spiritual is considered as a kind of unified principle of the universe, acting as a creative, transforming element of life and representing the highest force that determines the existence of the universe. In this case, the spiritual embodies the creative energy of being, bringing harmony and order into the world. Within the framework of this concept, the Spirit is not related to the being of a person, it is impersonal, supra-individual, although at the same time it finds its expression in the individual being of a person.
In the philosophy of subjective idealism spiritual being is a projection of human consciousness (thoughts, images, faith, dreams...).
Spiritual being is divided into individualized (opinions, value ideas of individual people) and objectified, outside/above/individual (religion, science).
4) Being social is divided into individual existence (the existence of an individual in society) and the existence of society. The being of nature (as the being of the material world that arose before man opposes the being of society as a spiritual and material being produced by people (and at the same time is in interaction with it).
In Marxism social being(understood as its own, internal material basis of society, not identical with its natural basis) is opposed to public consciousness(spiritual life of society), acting as the leading party (“being determines consciousness”).
Are very important. The existence of man is just one of these questions. It is generally accepted that it is presented in three realities:
In subjective spirituality;
Realities of living matter;
Objective-material reality.
All of them appear in two forms:
Premise;
Result.
Immediately after birth, a person finds himself in a society that will do everything possible so that he becomes not just an individual, but also a person. The spiritual and material existence of a person is a single dialectical process related to the social and material history of people. It has long been established how this predestination should be based on the level in which he receives education.
The existence of man is something that has been debated for many centuries. Most often, the individual is presented as a dual being, that is, being both a natural creation and a creation of society. The existence of a person, or rather the formation, has a direct connection with the spiritual and industrial spheres of life.
Being is often understood as spiritual, social, and also biological. Any of those living in society is a person. We cannot become individuals outside of society. All people are closely connected with each other: the transfer of experience is carried out everywhere and everywhere, people constantly offer each other one service in exchange for another, and so on. Those values that a person has are the values of the whole society or some part of it. The social existence of a person is what determines his uniqueness and uniqueness.
Initially, a person did not have creative, creative, spiritual, as well as socio-cultural functions of life. It is also important to note the fact that many biological functions of life have been "cultivated". An example is inter-gender relationships. It has already been proven that the initial perception of the world by man has also changed.
Over time, not only society has changed, but also the people themselves. In particular - their body, as well as spirit. The development of both is closely connected with each other, although the laws of development are different in each case.
Why is a person's spirituality so important? Some philosophers believed that it was he who could provide answers to the most difficult questions that determine the essence of our entire existence.
The individual existence of a person is always contradictory. This is due to the fact that each person, for the most part, looks at the world exclusively through the prism of experience, which he recognizes as his own. Individual views on life also depend on personal interests. Yes, society has given certain guidelines, but being still remains individual in any case.
Does a person have great prerequisites for development? Yes, big ones. This applies to any of his existence. The life of the body is the primary premise. Man exists in the natural world precisely as a body that depends on the natural cycle; he is born, develops, and then dies. The life of the spirit is impossible without the life of the body. On the basis of this truth, everything in society is arranged in such a way that anyone can live normally, develop abilities, improve themselves, and so on.
Is it possible to become a person, obeying exclusively those requirements that are associated with bodily laws? In principle, yes, but the personality in this case will not be developed, individual, special.
The issue of human social existence is also broad. We originally belong to a certain part of society. But under certain conditions, our position may change. A person can go up and down the social ladder indefinitely. It all depends on volitional qualities, motivation, goals, and so on.