The invention of Greek fire took place c. Greek fire: recipe, invention and history of the legendary composition

Greek fire

"Greek fire" is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which possessed amazing efficiency, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the mighty Mediterranean empire. As a number of sources allow us to judge, it was the “Greek fire” that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all the dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.

The first reliable case of ejection of an incendiary composition from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delia (424 BC) between the Athenians and the Boeotians. More precisely, not in the battle itself, but during the assault by the Boeotians of the city of Delium, in which the Athenians took refuge.
The pipe used by the Boeotians was a hollow log, and the combustible liquid was presumably a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil. The mixture was thrown out of the chimney with enough force to force the Delian garrison to flee from the fire and thus ensure the success of the Boeotian warriors in storming the fortress wall.

In the Hellenistic era, a flamethrower was invented, which, however, did not throw a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. As is clear from the captions to the drawing, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be pumped, after which, with a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the muzzle. Most likely, the range of this device was small - 5-10 meters.
However, in some situations, this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge to board the board, or during a sortie besieged against the enemy's wooden siege works.

The real "Greek fire" appears in the early Middle Ages. It was invented by Kallinikos, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). Byzantine sources indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD.
"Liquid fire" erupted from the siphons. The combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
"Greek fire" was a powerful argument in naval battles, since it is precisely the crowded squadrons of wooden ships that make an excellent target for an incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously declare that the effect of "Greek fire" was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt are called, and - of course! - a "secret ingredient". The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when in contact with water, and any viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.
For the first time pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromons - the main class of Byzantine warships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673 the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV found out about the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ships carrying siphons ... The Arabs were shocked ... They fled in great fear.
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 717-718.
“The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated.

Later, in the 10th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet described this event as follows: “Someone Kallinikos, who ran to the Romans from Heliopolis, prepared liquid fire thrown out of the siphons, which burned the Saracen fleet at Cyzicus, the Romans won.”
Another Byzantine emperor, Leo VI the Philosopher, gives the following description of Greek fire: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and people fighting on them. This is the fire prepared for the siphons, from which it rushes with a thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which it is directed.
Siphons, as is commonly believed, were made of bronze, but how exactly they threw a combustible composition is unknown. But it is easy to guess that the range of the "Greek fire" was more than moderate - a maximum of 25 m.

There is no doubt that over time, the Arabs realized that the psychological impact of Greek fire is much stronger than its real damaging ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. Which was done. However, "do not approach" in the absence of effective means of destruction means "do not fight." And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered from the Arabs one defeat after another, then thanks to the fire-bearing ships, the Christians managed to hold Constantinople and Greece for many centuries.
There are a number of other precedents for the successful use of "liquid fire" by the Byzantines to defend their sea frontiers.
In 872, they burned 20 Cretan ships (more precisely, the ships were Arab, but operated from captured Crete). In 882, the fire-bearing Byzantine ships (helandii) again defeated the Arab fleet.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used "Greek fire" not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, who approached Constantinople directly.

A detailed story about this naval battle was left by the historian Liutprand of Cremona:
“Roman [the Byzantine emperor] ordered shipbuilders to come to him, and said to them: “Now go and immediately equip those helands that are left [at home]. But place a device for throwing fire not only at the bow, but also at the stern and on both sides.
So, when helandia were equipped according to his order, he put in them the most experienced men and ordered them to go towards King Igor. They set sail; seeing them at sea, King Igor ordered his army to take them alive and not kill them. But the good and merciful Lord, desiring not only to protect those who honor Him, worship Him, pray to Him, but also to honor them with victory, tamed the winds, thereby calming the sea; for otherwise it would have been difficult for the Greeks to throw fire.
So, having taken a position in the middle of the Russian [troop], they [began] throwing fire in all directions. The Russians, seeing this, immediately began to rush from the ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in the fire. Some, weighed down with chain mail and helmets, immediately went to the bottom of the sea, and they were no longer seen, while others, having swum, continued to burn even in the water; no one was saved that day if he did not manage to run to the shore. After all, the ships of the Russians, due to their small size, also swim in shallow water, which the Greek Helandia cannot because of their deep draft.

Historian Georgiy Amartol adds that the defeat of Igor after the attack of the fire-bearing helands was completed by a flotilla of other Byzantine warships: dromons and triremes.
Based on this valuable recognition, one can make an assumption about the organizational structure of the Byzantine fleet of the 10th century. Specialized ships - helandia - carried siphons for throwing "Greek fire", since, presumably, they were considered less valuable (than dromons and triremes), but more structurally adapted for this function.
While the cruisers and battleships of the Byzantine fleet were dromons and triremes - which fought the enemy in a manner classic for the entire era of pre-powder sailing and rowing fleets. That is, by ramming, shelling with various projectiles from the throwing machines on board and, if necessary, boarding, for which they had sufficiently strong detachments of fighters.

Later, the Byzantines used “Greek fire” against the Rus at least once more, during the Danube campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, son of Igor (“Sfendoslav, son of Ingor” by the historian Leo Deacon). During the struggle for the Bulgarian fortress Dorostol on the Danube, the Byzantines blocked the actions of Svyatoslav's fleet with the help of fire-bearing ships.
Here is how Leo the Deacon describes this episode: “In the meantime, fire-bearing triremes and food ships of the Romans appeared floating along the Istra. At the sight of them, the Romans were incredibly happy, and the Scythians were terrified, because they were afraid that liquid fire would be turned against them. After all, they had already heard from the old people from their people that with this very “Median fire” the Romans turned the huge fleet of Ingor, the father of Sfendoslav, into ashes on the Euxine Sea. Therefore, they quickly gathered their canoes and brought them to the city wall in the place where the flowing Istres goes around one of the sides of Doristol. But the fiery ships lay in wait for the Scythians from all sides, so that they could not slip away on the boats to their land.

The Byzantines used the Greek "fire" in the defense of fortresses. So, on one of the miniatures of the “Chronicle” by Georgy Amartol from the Tver list (beginning of the 14th century), stored in the Moscow State Library named after V.I. Lenin, one can see the image of a warrior with a fire-throwing siphon in his hands.

Further, it is known that in 1106 "Greek fire" was used against the Normans during the last siege of Durazzo.
"Greek fire" was also used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Which, however, did not save Constantinople - it was taken by the crusaders and subjected to monstrous devastation.
The secret of making Greek fire was kept in strict secrecy, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost.
The last mention of the use of Greek fire refers to the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II the Conqueror: Greek fire was then used by both the Byzantines and the Turks.
After the start of the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms, Greek fire lost its military significance, its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.

THE MYSTERY OF THE BYZANTINE FLAMETHROW

History keeps many cases of hiding military secrets. An example of this is the famous "Greek fire", the likely forerunner of the modern flamethrower. The Greeks guarded the secret of their weapons for five centuries, until it was lost forever.

So who and when for the first time in history used a flamethrower? What is this strange weapon - "Greek fire" that still haunts historians? Some researchers accept the fact of reports about him as an indisputable truth, while others, despite the evidence of sources, treat them with distrust.

The first use of incendiary weapons occurred during the Battle of Delia, which took place in 424 BC. In this battle, the Theban commander Pagonda defeated the main Athenian army led by Hippocrates, who fell on the battlefield. Then the "incendiary weapon" was a hollow log, and the combustible liquid was a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil.

During the Peloponnesian War between the Athenian Maritime Union and the Peloponnesian Union, led by Sparta, the Spartans burned sulfur and tar under the walls of Plataea, wanting to force the besieged city to surrender. This event is described by Thucydides, who himself was a participant in the war, but was expelled for his unsuccessful command of the squadron of the Athenian fleet.

However, some kind of flamethrower was invented much later. But he threw not a combustible composition, but a pure flame interspersed with sparks and coals. Fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier, then air was blown with the help of bellows, causing a flame to escape from the muzzle with a deafening and terrible roar. Of course, such weapons were not long-range.

Only with the advent of the mysterious "Greek fire" could we talk about the creation of a formidable and merciless weapon.

The closest harbingers of "Greek fire" are the "braziers" used on Roman ships, with the help of which the Romans could break through the formation of ships of the enemy fleet. These "braziers" were ordinary buckets, into which flammable liquid was poured immediately before the battle and set on fire. The “brazier” was hung at the end of a long hook and carried five to seven meters ahead of the ship’s course, which made it possible to empty a bucket of flammable liquid onto the deck of an enemy ship before it could ram a Roman ship.

There were also siphons, invented around 300 BC. by a certain Greek from Alexandria, - a hand weapon, which was a pipe filled with oil. The oil was set on fire, and it was possible to water the enemy ship with it. It is generally accepted that later the siphons were made of bronze (according to other sources - of copper), but how exactly they threw a combustible composition is unknown ...

And yet the true "Greek fire" - if there was one at all! appeared only in the Middle Ages. The origin of this weapon is still not exactly known, but it is assumed that it was invented by a certain Syrian architect and engineer Kallinikos, a refugee from Maalbek. Byzantine sources even indicate the exact date of the invention of "Greek fire": 673 AD. (according to other sources, it was the year 626, when the Romans used fire against the Persians and Avars, who were besieging Constantinople with their combined forces). "Liquid fire" erupted from the siphons, and the combustible mixture burned even on the surface of the water.

The fire was extinguished only with sand. This sight caused horror and surprise of the enemy. One of the eyewitnesses wrote that the combustible mixture was applied to a metal spear launched by a giant sling. It flew with the speed of lightning and with a thunderous roar and was like a dragon with a pig's head. When the projectile reached its target, an explosion occurred and a cloud of acrid black smoke rose, after which a flame arose, spreading in all directions; if they tried to extinguish the flame with water, it flared up with renewed vigor.

trebuchet

At first, "Greek fire" - or "grijois" - was used only by the Romans (Byzantines), and only in naval battles. In naval battles, the "Greek fire" was the ultimate weapon, according to the accounts, since it was the crowded fleets of wooden ships that provided the perfect target for the incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arabic sources unanimously claim that the effect of "Greek fire" was truly stunning. Historian Nikita Choniates writes of "closed pots where fire sleeps, which suddenly breaks out with lightning and sets fire to everything it reaches."

The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as oil, various oils, combustible resins, sulfur, asphalt and a certain “secret component” are named. Presumably, it was a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites on contact with water, and some viscous carriers like oil or asphalt.

For the first time, pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromons - ships of the fleet of the Byzantine Empire, and then became the main weapon of all classes of Byzantine ships.

Dromon

In the late 660s of our era, the Arab fleet repeatedly approached Constantinople. However, the besieged, led by the energetic Emperor Constantine IV, beat off all attacks, and the Arab fleet was destroyed with the help of "Greek fire".

Constantine IV Pogonat

The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673 the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV found out about the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-deck ships equipped with Greek fire, and ships carrying siphons ... The Arabs were shocked ... They fled in great fear.

In 717, the Arabs, led by the caliph's brother, the Syrian governor Maslama, approached Constantinople and on August 15 made another attempt to capture Constantinople. On September 1, the Arab fleet, numbering more than 1800 ships, occupied the entire space in front of the city. The Byzantines blocked the Golden Horn with a chain on wooden floats, after which the fleet, led by Emperor Leo III, inflicted a heavy defeat on the enemy.

Leo III the Isaurian

His victory was largely facilitated by the "Greek fire". “The emperor prepared fire-bearing siphons and placed them on board one- and two-deck ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was utterly defeated.

Constantinople

The same thing happened to the Arabs in 739,780 and 789. In 764, the Bulgarians fell victim to the fire ...

There is evidence that the Romans used "Greek fire" against the Russians.

In 941, with the help of their secret weapons, they defeated the fleet of Prince Igor, who was marching on Tsargrad (Constantinople). The Romans, warned by the Bulgarians, sent a fleet to meet the formidable Rus' under the leadership of Caruas, Feofan and Vard Fok. In the ensuing naval battle, the Russian fleet was destroyed. Not least thanks to the "Greek living fire". It was impossible to put out the ships, and the Russian soldiers, fleeing from the deadly fire, jumped into the sea in "armor" and went to the bottom like a stone. The oncoming storm completed the rout of the Russian fleet.

destruction of the fleet of Prince Igor

Nearly a hundred years had passed when the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, in 1043 unexpectedly approached the walls of Constantinople with a fleet. Russian ships lined up in one line in the Golden Horn Bay, where a battle took place a few days later. According to Carlo Botta, the Russians were defeated "from the onset of autumn storms, Greek fire and the experience of the Byzantines in maritime affairs."

However, in another naval battle of the same Vladimir Yaroslavich with the fleet of the Romans, when the prince returned home, the "Greek fire" did not show itself in any way. The Russians returned unhindered to Kyiv. It is also not entirely clear why fire was not used during the famous successful campaign against Byzantium by Prince Oleg of Kiev in 907 ... And why did Byzantium not use such a powerful tool against its other opponents?

According to a number of Russian and Western European historians, the Mongol-Tatars also used "Greek fire". However, in the primary sources, almost nowhere is it said about the effectiveness of its use!

The "live fire" did not show itself at all during Batu's campaigns against Rus'. The capture of the largest cities - the princely capitals - took from three days to a week, and such a small town as Kozelsk, which could be burned without much trouble with the same "live fire", staunchly held out against the entire Batu horde for seven weeks.

defense of Kozelsk

The victorious invasion of Batu into Western Europe also did without the use of "live fire". The famous Dzhanibek stormed Kafa (modern Feodosia) for more than a year to no avail ...

The capture and ruin of Moscow by Tokhtamysh is described in sufficient detail, but the author of the "Tale" does not mention any "miracle weapon" from the invaders. The most famous Asian commander Timur (Tamerlane) also did very well without the wonderful "Greek fire".

At the time of the Crusades, "Greek fire" was already widely known both in the West and in the East, and was used not only in naval, but also in land battles.

In general, combustible materials were used in the West, as well as in the East, and a widespread method of fighting the enemy's throwing machines was to set them on fire with the help of burning tow. Even on the Bayeux carpet, one can see primitive incendiaries, which are torches at the end of long lances, designed to set fire to siege towers and weapons, almost always made of wood. During the siege of Jerusalem, according to the chroniclers, a real stream of combustible materials fell on the besiegers: “The townspeople threw fire into the towers in a dense mass, there were many burning arrows, firebrands, pots of sulfur, oil and resin, and much more that supports the fire.”

But the "Greek fire" was more terrible than tar or firebrands. There is information about this wonderful "weapon of mass destruction" in medieval Spanish chronicles. They are recorded from the words of the participants in the campaign of Louis IX in the holy land.

There were many oil sources in Arabia and the countries of the Middle East, so the Arabs could easily use oil, because its reserves were simply inexhaustible. During the Franco-Byzantine attack on Egypt in 1168, the Muslims kept twenty thousand pots of oil at the gates of Cairo and then set off ten thousand burning stones to set fire to the city and keep the Franks out.

The famous Saladin was in the same way compelled to set fire to his Nubian camp in order to suppress the revolt of his black guard, and indeed, when the rebels saw their camp on fire, where their property, wives and children were located, they fled in panic.

One witness described the effect produced during the siege of Damietta in November 1219 by “tablecloths of Greek fire”: “Greek fire, flowing like a river from the river tower and from the city, sowed terror; but with the help of vinegar, sand and other materials they extinguished it, coming to the aid of those who became its victims.

siege of Demiette

Over time, the crusaders learned to defend themselves from "live fire"; they covered the siege weapons with the skins of freshly skinned animals and began to extinguish the fire not with water, but with vinegar, sand or talc, which the Arabs had long used to protect themselves from this fire.

Along with evidence of terrible weapons in the history of "Greek fire" there are many white spots and simply inexplicable situations.

Here is the first paradox: as the chronicler Robert de Clary pointed out in his work “The Conquest of Constantinople”, created at the beginning of the 13th century, the crusaders themselves in 1204 did they already know his secret? - tried to use "Greek fire" during the siege of Constantinople. However, the wooden towers of the walls of Constantinople were protected by skins moistened with water, so the fire did not help the knights. And why didn't the Romans, who knew its secrets and defended the city, use "live fire"? It remains a mystery. One way or another, but the crusaders, having blocked Constantinople from the sea and land, took it with a decisive assault, losing only one knight.

assault on Constantinople

The same thing happens during the agony of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. Even in the last battles for the capital, the use of the “wonder weapon” did not come ...

After all, if such an effective weapon existed that instilled fear and horror in opponents, why didn’t it later play a significant role in battles? Because his secret was lost?

It is worth thinking about the following question: is it possible to maintain a monopoly on any type of weapon or military equipment after its effect has been clearly demonstrated on the battlefield? As the experience of wars shows, no. It turns out that this formidable weapon was used only in those campaigns when, even without it, there were already real prerequisites for achieving victory - the small number of enemy troops, the indecisive nature of his actions, bad weather conditions, and the like. And when meeting with a strong enemy, the army, which possessed a "miracle weapon", suddenly found itself on the verge of death and for some reason did not use a terrible weapon. The version about the loss of the recipe for "live fire" is very doubtful. The Byzantine Empire, like any other state of the Middle Ages, did not know peaceful respite...

So did "Greek fire" exist at all?

The question remains open. In fact, flamethrowers in combat operations began to be used only at the beginning of the 20th century, or rather, during the First World War, and by all the belligerents.

But back in 424 BC. e. in the land battle of Delia, ancient Greek warriors fired a kind of incendiary mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil from a hollow log. Actually, the "Greek fire" was invented in the city by the engineer and architect Kallinikos from the Syrian Heliopolis conquered by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon), who, apparently, designed a special throwing device - the "siphon" - for throwing an incendiary mixture. Kallinikos fled to Byzantium and there he offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs.

The installation with Greek fire was a copper pipe - a siphon, through which a liquid mixture erupted with a roar. Compressed air, or bellows like blacksmith's bellows, was used as the buoyant force.

Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the fleet, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of that time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be put out by anything, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, siphons with Greek fire were installed on Byzantine dromons during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Theophan wrote about her:

If on land the Byzantine troops were defeated by the Arabs, then at sea the "Greek fire" gave superiority to the Byzantine fleet over the enemy. Thanks to him, in 718, a major naval victory was won over the Arabs. In 941, the Byzantines, with the help of "Greek fire", defeated the fleet of Prince Igor Rurikovich that approached Constantinople. Greek fire was used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (1202-). The secret of making "Greek fire", also called "Kallinikos fire", was kept in strict secrecy, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost. It is known that oil for fire has been extracted on the Taman Peninsula for centuries. In 1106, Greek fire was used against the Normans during the siege of Durazzo (Dyrrhachia). In the XII century, Greek fire was already known to the British, since the Angles had long served in Byzantium in the so-called. "Varangian Guard".

"Greek fire" was also used in fortress sieges. Some researchers, based on the analysis of Russian chronicles, conclude that the Greek fire was familiar to the Russians and Polovtsians. Also, according to some reports, the Greek fire was in service with the army of Tamerlane. The last mention of the use of Greek fire refers to the siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mohammed II: despite the widespread development of artillery among the Turks by that time, Turkish ships in the Golden Horn Bay were burned by the Byzantine garrison with the help of Greek fire.

After the start of the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms, "Greek fire" lost its military significance, its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.

Manufacturing

A siege engine bombarding the castle with barrels of Greek fire, 13th century. Engraving from Harper's Magazine, 1869.

The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown, since the names of substances are not always accurately identified in historical documents. So, in Russian translations-descriptions, the word "sulfur" could mean any combustible substance, including fat. The most likely components were quicklime, sulfur, and crude oil or asphalt. Also, the composition could include calcium phosphide, which, on contact with water, releases phosphine gas, which ignites spontaneously in air.

In the “Fiery Book” of Marco Greco, the following composition of Greek fire is given: “1 part of rosin, 1 part of sulfur, 6 parts of finely ground saltpeter, dissolve in linseed or laurel oil, then put in a pipe or in a wooden trunk and light. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire. It should be noted that this composition served only to eject a fiery mixture in which an "unknown ingredient" was used.

Greek fire was more of a psychological weapon: fearing it, enemy ships tried to keep their distance from the ships of the Byzantines. The siphon with Greek fire was installed, as a rule, on the bow or stern of the ship. Sometimes the fire mixture was thrown onto enemy ships in barrels: there are references to the fact that as a result of careless handling of Greek fire, Byzantine ships often caught fire.

Quest for the Secret of Greek Fire

Many alchemists and, later, scientists worked on the disclosure of the secret components of the mixture. One such explorer was the Frenchman Dupre, who in 1758 announced that he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. Tests were carried out near Le Havre, as a result of which a wooden sloop was burned, which was at a great distance in the open sea. King Louis XV, impressed and frightened by the action of this weapon, bought all his papers from Dupre and destroyed them.

eyewitness memories

The memoirs of Jean de Joinville, chronicler of the Seventh Crusade, contain descriptions of the operation of Greek fire:

It happened one night when we were keeping the night watch on the tower; the Saracens brought a siege weapon called the perronel, which had never been done before, and loaded its sling with Greek fire. When the good knight Lord Walter Kurelsky, who was with us, saw these preparations, he told us: “Gentlemen, we got into such trouble with you, which we have never been in before. If they aim their fire at our towers and shelters, we will lose and burn alive. If we lose the fortifications that we have been entrusted with guarding, it will be the greatest shame - and only the Lord can save us from trouble. This is my opinion and my advice: every time they launch fire at us, we should fall on our elbows and knees and pray to our Lord for salvation.

As soon as the first shot rang out, we fell on our elbows and knees, exactly as he taught us; and their first shot went right past the two towers, and crashed into the ground right into the ditch in front of us. Our firemen had already rushed to put out the flames, and the Saracens, unable to aim at them, shot into the clouds so that the flames fell on them.

Such is the nature of Greek fire: its projectile is huge like a vessel for vinegar, and the tail stretching behind is like a giant spear. His flight was accompanied by a terrible noise, like thunder from heaven. The Greek fire in the air was like a dragon flying in the sky. Such a bright light emanated from it that it seemed that the sun had risen over the camp. The reason for this was the huge fiery mass and brilliance contained in it.

Three times that night they threw Greek fire [from the perronel] at us, and four times they shot it at us from the ballista.

see also

• Siphonophore - a device for throwing Greek fire
• Meng Huo You (猛火油 en:Meng Huo You)

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Ardashev A.N. Chapter 3. Greek fire is an unsolved mystery of the ages. // Flamethrower-incendiary weapon. Illustrated reference book. - Aginskoye, Balashikha: AST, Astrel, 2001. - 288 p. - (Military equipment). - 10 100 copies. - ISBN 5-17-008790-X

Links

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See what "Greek fire" is in other dictionaries:

Incendiary mixtures used by the Greeks for military purposes in the Middle Ages. Samoilov K.I. Marine Dictionary. M. L .: State Naval Publishing House of the NKVMF of the USSR, 1941 Greek fire incendiary composition used in 7 ... Marine Dictionary

An incendiary mixture, probably from tar, oil, sulfur, saltpeter, etc., used in the 7th-15th centuries. in naval battles and during the siege of fortresses. Barrels and various vessels with an ignited mixture were thrown with the help of throwing machines and pipes onto ships or into ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

An incendiary mixture, probably from resin, oil, sulfur, saltpeter, etc., used in the 7th-15th centuries. in naval battles and during the siege of fortresses. Barrels and various vessels with an ignited mixture were thrown with the help of throwing machines and pipes onto ships or into ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Incendiary (an allusion to the Greek fire of the Greeks, Arabs, which ignited in water, something like gunpowder, known from the 4th century BC) Cf. Pleasant appearance, cheerful disposition, etc. all this together littered such sparks in Jeannie's chest that did not ... ... Michelson's Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary

G. an engineer and architect Kallinikos from the Syrian Heliopolis conquered by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon), who, apparently, designed a special throwing device - a "siphon" - for throwing an incendiary mixture. Kallinikos fled to Byzantium and there he offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs.

The installation with Greek fire was a copper pipe - a siphon, through which a liquid mixture erupted with a roar. Compressed air, or bellows like blacksmith's bellows, was used as the buoyant force.

Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the fleet, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of that time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be put out by anything, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, siphons with Greek fire were installed on Byzantine dromons during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Theophan wrote about her:

If on land the Byzantine troops were defeated by the Arabs, then at sea the "Greek fire" gave superiority to the Byzantine fleet over the enemy. Thanks to him, in 718, a major naval victory was won over the Arabs. In 941, the Byzantines, with the help of "Greek fire", defeated the fleet of Prince Igor Rurikovich that approached Constantinople. Greek fire was used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (-). The secret of preparing "Greek fire", also called "Kallinikos fire", was kept in strict confidence, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost. It is known that oil for fire has been mined on the Taman Peninsula since the 11th century. In 1106, Greek fire was used against the Normans during the siege of Durazzo (Dyrrhachia). In the XII century, Greek fire was already known to the British, since the Angles had long served in Byzantium in the so-called. "Varangian Guard".

"Greek fire" was also used in fortress sieges. Some researchers, based on the analysis of Russian chronicles, conclude that the Greek fire was familiar to the Russians and Polovtsians. Also, according to some reports, the Greek fire was in service with the army of Tamerlane. The last mention of the use of Greek fire is in the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mohammed II.

After the start of the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms, "Greek fire" lost its military significance, its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.

Manufacturing

The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown, since the names of substances are not always accurately identified in historical documents. So, in Russian translations-descriptions, the word "sulfur" could mean any combustible substance, including fat. The most likely components were quicklime, sulfur, and crude oil or asphalt. Also, the composition could include calcium phosphide, which, on contact with water, releases phosphine gas, which ignites spontaneously in air.

eyewitness memories

see also

• Siphonophore - a device for throwing Greek fire
• Meng Huo You (猛火油 en:Meng Huo You)

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Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Ardashev A.N. Chapter 3. Greek fire is an unsolved mystery of the ages. // Flamethrower-incendiary weapon. Illustrated reference book. - Aginskoye, Balashikha: AST, Astrel, 2001. - 288 p. - (Military equipment). - 10 100 copies. - ISBN 5-17-008790-X.
• Arendt V.V. Greek fire (fire fighting technique before the advent of firearms) // Archive of the history of science and technology. M., 1936. Series 1. Issue. 9.

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An excerpt characterizing Greek fire

“I have the honor to congratulate you, General Mack has arrived, in perfect health, only a little hurt here,” he added, beaming with a smile and pointing to his head.
The general frowned, turned away, and walked on.
Gott, wie naive! [My God, how simple he is!] – he said angrily, moving away a few steps.
Nesvitsky embraced Prince Andrei with laughter, but Bolkonsky, turning even paler, with an evil expression on his face, pushed him away and turned to Zherkov. That nervous irritation into which the sight of Mack, the news of his defeat, and the thought of what awaited the Russian army had brought him, found its outlet in bitterness at Zherkov's inappropriate joke.
“If you, dear sir,” he spoke piercingly with a slight trembling of his lower jaw, “want to be a jester, then I cannot prevent you from doing so; but I announce to you that if you dare another time to make a fuss in my presence, then I will teach you how to behave.
Nesvitsky and Zherkov were so surprised by this trick that they silently, with their eyes wide open, looked at Bolkonsky.
“Well, I only congratulated you,” said Zherkov.
- I'm not joking with you, if you please be silent! - Bolkonsky shouted and, taking Nesvitsky by the hand, he walked away from Zherkov, who could not find what to answer.
“Well, what are you, brother,” Nesvitsky said reassuringly.
- Like what? - Prince Andrei spoke, stopping from excitement. - Yes, you understand that we, or officers who serve their tsar and fatherland and rejoice at the common success and grieve about the common failure, or we are lackeys who do not care about the master's business. Quarante milles hommes massacres et l "ario mee de nos allies detruite, et vous trouvez la le mot pour rire," he said, as if reinforcing his opinion with this French phrase. - C "est bien pour un garcon de rien, comme cet individu , dont vous avez fait un ami, mais pas pour vous, pas pour vous. [Forty thousand people died and the allied army was destroyed, and you can joke about it. This is forgivable to an insignificant boy, like this gentleman whom you have made your friend, but not to you, not to you.] Boys can only be so amused, - said Prince Andrei in Russian, pronouncing this word with a French accent, noting that Zherkov could still hear it.
He waited for the cornet to answer. But the cornet turned and walked out of the corridor.

The Pavlograd Hussar Regiment was stationed two miles from Braunau. The squadron, in which Nikolai Rostov served as a cadet, was located in the German village of Salzenek. The squadron commander, captain Denisov, known to the entire cavalry division under the name of Vaska Denisov, was assigned the best apartment in the village. Junker Rostov had been living with the squadron commander ever since he caught up with the regiment in Poland.
On October 11, on the very day when everything in the main apartment was raised to its feet by the news of Mack's defeat, camping life at the squadron headquarters calmly went on as before. Denisov, who had been losing all night at cards, had not yet returned home when Rostov, early in the morning, on horseback, returned from foraging. Rostov, in a cadet uniform, rode up to the porch, pushed the horse, threw off his leg with a flexible, young gesture, stood on the stirrup, as if not wanting to part with the horse, finally jumped down and called out to the messenger.
“Ah, Bondarenko, dear friend,” he said to the hussar, who rushed headlong to his horse. “Let me out, my friend,” he said with that brotherly, cheerful tenderness with which good young people treat everyone when they are happy.
“I’m listening, your excellency,” answered the Little Russian, shaking his head merrily.
- Look, take it out well!
Another hussar also rushed to the horse, but Bondarenko had already thrown over the reins of the snaffle. It was evident that the junker gave well for vodka, and that it was profitable to serve him. Rostov stroked the horse's neck, then its rump, and stopped on the porch.
“Glorious! Such will be the horse! he said to himself, and, smiling and holding his saber, he ran up to the porch, rattling his spurs. The German owner, in a sweatshirt and cap, with a pitchfork, with which he cleaned the manure, looked out of the barn. The German's face suddenly brightened as soon as he saw Rostov. He smiled cheerfully and winked: “Schon, gut Morgen! Schon, gut Morgen!" [Fine, good morning!] he repeated, apparently finding pleasure in greeting the young man.
– Schonfleissig! [Already at work!] - said Rostov, still with the same joyful, brotherly smile that did not leave his animated face. – Hoch Oestreicher! Hoch Russen! Kaiser Alexander hoch! [Hooray Austrians! Hooray Russians! Emperor Alexander hurray!] - he turned to the German, repeating the words often spoken by the German host.
The German laughed, went completely out of the barn door, pulled
cap and, waving it over his head, shouted:
– Und die ganze Welt hoch! [And the whole world cheers!]
Rostov himself, just like a German, waved his cap over his head and, laughing, shouted: “Und Vivat die ganze Welt!” Although there was no reason for special joy either for the German who was cleaning his cowshed, or for Rostov, who went with a platoon for hay, both of these people looked at each other with happy delight and brotherly love, shook their heads in a sign of mutual love and parted smiling - the German to the barn, and Rostov to the hut he shared with Denisov.
- What's the sir? he asked Lavrushka, the rogue lackey Denisov known to the entire regiment.
Haven't been since the evening. It’s true, we lost,” answered Lavrushka. “I already know that if they win, they will come early to show off, and if they don’t until morning, then they’ve blown away, the angry ones will come. Would you like coffee?
- Come on, come on.
After 10 minutes, Lavrushka brought coffee. They're coming! - he said, - now the trouble. - Rostov looked out the window and saw Denisov returning home. Denisov was a small man with a red face, shining black eyes, black tousled mustache and hair. He was wearing an unbuttoned mentic, wide chikchirs lowered in folds, and a crumpled hussar cap was put on the back of his head. He gloomily, lowering his head, approached the porch.
“Lavg” ear, ”he shouted loudly and angrily. “Well, take it off, blockhead!
“Yes, I’m filming anyway,” answered Lavrushka’s voice.
- A! you already got up, - said Denisov, entering the room.
- For a long time, - said Rostov, - I already went for hay and saw Fraulein Matilda.
– That's how! And I pg "puffed up, bg" at, vcheg "a, like a son of a bitch!" shouted Denisov, without pronouncing the river. - Such a misfortune! Such a misfortune! As you left, so it went. Hey, tea!
Denisov, grimacing, as if smiling and showing his short, strong teeth, began to ruffle his black, thick hair, like a dog, with both hands with short fingers.
- Chog "t me money" zero to go to this kg "yse (nickname of the officer)," he said, rubbing his forehead and face with both hands. "You didn't.
Denisov took the lighted pipe handed to him, clenched it into a fist, and, scattering fire, hit it on the floor, continuing to shout.
- The sempel will give, pag "ol beats; the sempel will give, pag" ol beats.
He scattered the fire, smashed the pipe and threw it away. Denisov paused, and suddenly, with his shining black eyes, looked merrily at Rostov.
- If only there were women. And then here, kg "oh how to drink, there is nothing to do. If only she could get away."
- Hey, who's there? - he turned to the door, hearing the stopped steps of thick boots with the rattling of spurs and a respectful cough.
- Wahmister! Lavrushka said.
Denisov frowned even more.
“Squeeg,” he said, throwing a purse with several gold pieces. “Gostov, count, my dear, how much is left there, but put the purse under the pillow,” he said and went out to the sergeant-major.
Rostov took the money and, mechanically, putting aside and leveling heaps of old and new gold, began to count them.
- A! Telyanin! Zdog "ovo! Inflate me all at once" ah! Denisov's voice was heard from another room.
- Who? At Bykov's, at the rat's? ... I knew, - said another thin voice, and after that Lieutenant Telyanin, a small officer of the same squadron, entered the room.
Rostov threw a purse under the pillow and shook the small, damp hand extended to him. Telyanin was transferred from the guard before the campaign for something. He behaved very well in the regiment; but they did not like him, and in particular Rostov could neither overcome nor hide his unreasonable disgust for this officer.
- Well, young cavalryman, how does my Grachik serve you? - he asked. (Grachik was a riding horse, a tack, sold by Telyanin to Rostov.)
The lieutenant never looked into the eyes of the person with whom he spoke; His eyes were constantly moving from one object to another.
- I saw you drove today ...
“Nothing, good horse,” answered Rostov, despite the fact that this horse, bought by him for 700 rubles, was not worth even half of this price. “I began to crouch on the left front ...” he added. - Cracked hoof! It's nothing. I will teach you, show you which rivet to put.

06Oct

What is Greek Fire

Greek fire or " liquid fire» - This a destructive incendiary weapon that according to historical sources was invented and used in the seventh century and later. This combustible mixture got its name in honor of the Byzantine Greeks, who especially liked to use it in battles. In addition to them, this weapon was quite often used by the Arabs, Chinese and Mongols. This weapon was extremely destructive. It instilled fear in the hearts of enemies and effectively destroyed enemy manpower, ships, fortifications and other types of weapons.

Greek fire - composition.

An interesting fact is that the formula for Greek fire was so secret that it was quickly lost, and at the moment no one knows for sure the true composition of the mixture. According to historical references, we can imagine that Greek fire was something similar to modern napalm. That is, it was an extremely flammable mixture, which was almost impossible to put out. It burned easily on the surface of the water and attempts to extinguish it with the same water caused the fire to grow even more, which also makes a reference to the "termite".

Probable formula for Greek fire.

Given the availability of ingredients in that era, it can be assumed that the main components for creating Greek fire were:

• Oil;
• Oil mixtures;
• Quicklime;
• Bitumen;
• Sulfur;
• Resin;
• Saltpeter.

These ingredients are used in modern explosives, which is a testament to their strength. And besides, they were available and known to at least a limited circle of mankind in this period of history. The development of Greek fire is probably closely related to alchemy, the ancient forerunner of modern chemistry.

In modern conditions, attempts were made to recreate this destructive mixture using the then available components, but alas, they all failed.

Greek fire - effectiveness and use in combat.

As you can imagine, this combustible mixture was an extremely effective and terrible weapon. The Greeks, in their tactics of naval battles, often set fire to empty ships with "live fire" and sent them along the course of the enemy, which eventually set fire to the enemy fleet. In addition, there were incendiary bombs that could be launched using a catapult. Also, at that time there were some analogues of modern flamethrowers. Presumably, the mixture was heated in special boilers before being fed into the flamethrower hoses. Since the use and storage of this weapon was extremely dangerous, the soldiers working with it wore special protective leather armor. The ships on which Greek fire was transported were treated with various means, such as mixtures of vinegar and talc, which made them somewhat fire resistant.